In spite of the centrality of the Jewish question to Nazi ideology, and in spite of their radical approach to it, the Nazis, upon their ascent to power, lacked a plan for concrete steps or clear objectives with regard to the Jews. Instead, initial measures were shaped by compromises made between the conflicting power bases. These measures took the form of attacks on Jewish businesses and places of employment. By spring 1933 a climate of terror prevailed, and the economic assault, guided by ideological considerations, had produced a nation wide Boycott and national legislation dismissing Jews from the civil service.
More 'The Antisemite Does Not Worry About the How' From a Book by Gottfried Feder 'The Program of the Nazi Party', 1927: Antisemitism is in a way the emotional foundation of our movement. Every National-Socialist is an Antisemite, but not every Antisemite will become a National-Socialist. Antisemitism is something purely negative, the Antisemite has recognised the carrier of the plague of the nations, but this recognition is mostly transformed only into personal hatred against the individual Jews, and their successes in economic life. At its best Antisemitism makes the still entirely negative demand to eliminate the Jew from our political and economic life. The Antisemite as a rule does not worry about the how' and what then' . (Feder 17)
From the Nazi Party Platform:
. 4. Only Nationals ( Volksgenossen ) can be citizens of the state. Only persons of German blood can be nationals, regardless of religious affiliation. No Jew can therefore be a German national. 5. Any person who is not a citizen will be able to live in Germany only as a guest and must be subject to legislation for Aliens. 6. Only a citizen is entitled to decide the leadership and laws of the state. We therefore demand that only citizens may hold public office, regardless of whether it is a national, state or local office...'. (Documents on the Holocaust 15)
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Street Violence
Borne on the tide of their election victory, the rank and file of the Nazi Party took to the streets to vent their revolutionary passion. They wanted to see their revolution and their Antisemite platform implemented immediately and began by attacking the hated of what the Nazis erroneously thought of as symbols of Jewish economic power - stores and businesses. These attacks were local SA initiatives. Encouraged by the regional Nazi leadership ( Gauleiter ) and led by the lower echelons of the party, they nevertheless lacked central leadership and had no guiding anti Jewish plan. Indeed, at first, assaults against Jews were not the first priority. Until the elections of March 5, 1933 the SA directed most of its rage at members of leftist parties and other political opponents. But after the elections, all of Germany was convulsed in a wave of anti-Jewish terror.
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Controlling the Radicals
The German civil service, guided by conservative traditions that valued the preservation of law and order, opposed the spontaneous violence. The bureaucrats were disgusted by the SA's unbridled hooliganism. On March 14, 1933, [Interior Minister] Frick issued the following order to all the state governments: In many locations throughout the Reich, incidents of shop closures and threats against business owners have occurred. This is seriously detrimental not only to the shopkeepers but to the consumers and to the entire economy. The authority of the state and the restoration of trust, without which Germany cannot be rehabilitated, are also harmed by these wanton acts. For the sake of order and public security, I ask [you] to act resolutely against these deviants....' (Genschel 45)
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The Nazi leadership recognised the lower echelons' need to vent their fierce hatred against National Socialism's ideological enemies. Those who led the regime identified with the radical forces unleashed by the Nazi revolution, and the SA's terror spree served to intimidate and paralyse all opponents of the regime. However, abdication of the responsibilities of central leadership could have disastrous results. Street violence could degenerate into general chaos and might imperil Nazi control, thus threatening the orderly take over of all ruling systems ( Gleichschaltung ). The conflicting tensions led to the emergence of a compromise among the various power centres, in which each pursued its own path.
Boycott and Economic Exclusion Screen
General Boycott
Attacks on Jews increased in intensity from the middle of March 1933. Throughout Germany, Nazi rallies and media propaganda fuelled the anti-Jewish passions of the party rank and file. In several towns, the local SA and other Nazi groups organised boycotts against Jewish shops and businesses. In reaction to this indiscriminate and sporadic violence, the Nazi leadership sought to calm tempers and assert control over the party's membership. The government would select targets for co-ordinated attacks on its enemies and the party operatives would learn to respond with disciplined action and submission to the regime's authority. Accordingly, the government proclaimed and organised a general boycott of the Jews that would simultaneously attack all Jewish enterprises nation wide, but would be restricted to one day.
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Cabinet Discussion on the Boycott
The boycott was announced as a defensive measure against the atrocity stories spread by Jewish organisations abroad. Reports by the foreign press about persecution of Jews in Germany and voices raised in some countries calling for a boycott against German goods were used by the Nazis as a pretext to stage their boycott. Political problems stemming from the planned boycott were discussed at a cabinet meeting on March 31, 1933. Although the boycott was not on the meeting's official agenda, the sensitive political situation required the Fuehrer's intervention. Among those in attendance were Hitler (Reich Chancellor), von Papen (Vice-Chancellor), von Neurath (Minister of Foreign Affairs), Schwerin von Krosigk (Minister of Finance), Goebbels (Minister of Propaganda) and Goering (Minister without portfolio). The Finance Minister stressed that the boycott would cause tax collection to decrease significantly. The Chancellor replied that the change would occur only in distribution. Instead of making their purchases at Jewish shops, people would buy at Christian shops. The Foreign Minister pointed out that the governments of England, France, and North America had explained in so many words that they were opposed to the Jewish atrocity stories. In view of such statements, it may be possible to avoid a boycott in Germany. The government of England may come out with such a statement before the end of the day.... The Chancellor of the Reich suggested that continuation of the boycott be postponed until Tuesday, April 4, if the governments of England and the United States make satisfactory statements against the incitement at once. Otherwise, the boycott will take place on Saturday, April 1, but with a moratorium until Tuesday, April 4. The Chancellor's proposal was unopposed.' (Akten der Reichskanzlei 276-7)
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Party Instructions for the boycott
'An order to the whole Party! Point 1: In every local branch and organisational section of the NSDAP Action Committees are to be formed immediately for the practical systematic implementation of a boycott of Jewish shops, Jewish goods, Jewish doctors and Jewish lawyers.... Point 2: The Action Committees are responsible for ensuring maximum protection for all foreigners.... Point 3: The Action Committees will immediately use propaganda and information to popularise the boycott.... Point 11: The Action Committees are responsible for ensuring that this entire struggle is carried out in complete calm and with absolute discipline. In future, too, do not harm a hair on a Jew's head...More than ever before it is now necessary for the whole party to stand in blind obedience, as one man, behind the leadership...'. (Voelkischer Beobachter 29 March 1)
Boycott Day: April 1, 1933
On April 1, 1933, SA brownshirts stood vigil at the entrances to Jewish shops, clinics, and law offices across Germany. They plastered storefront display windows with broadsheets and carried signs urging Germans to boycott the Jews.
Exemplary Discipline
From the diaries of Joseph Goebbels, Minister of Propaganda and Public Enlightenment :
'The boycott against world wide [Jewish] atrocity stories is under way with full fury in Berlin and everywhere in Germany.... All the Jewish shops are closed. Vigils of SA men are standing in front of their entrances. The public is displaying solidarity. Exemplary discipline prevails everywhere. It is an impressive spectacle. Everything is taking place with consummate order.... A hundred thousand young members of the Hitler Youth movement march this evening. Their parade in the city haze is a magnificently beautiful sight. I speak to them on the occasion of the Bismarck memorial day.... The boycott action is halted at midnight, as we decided. We are now waiting to see its results in media propaganda and abroad." (Goebbels Diaries, 1 April 1933)
Familiar Faces Turned into Raging Beasts
Memoirs of Lola Landau, Jewish teacher of English and literature in Berlin:
'To my great astonishment, I noticed many familiar faces among those visible there: petty merchants, clerks who perhaps once had nodded to me courteously behind their desks. I observed the familiar features of the cigarette vendor at the corner kiosk, a fat man with laughing eyes who always loved to tell me jokes. Now his lips moved villainously and his eyes looked glazed. What has happened to these people? What devilish charm has turned them from easygoing, harmless people into raging beasts?' (Landau 285)
Women Did Their Shopping Anyway
Testimony of Hanna Gluecksmann, Hamburg:
'April 1, 1933 ΓÇô Boycott Day: Two Nazis stood in front of our shop and sought to stop the women from doing their shopping there. Most of them were the wives of working men. But they refused to be stopped. They entered the shop with their baskets and their children. It was a neighbourhood of working people, a Communist neighbourhood. And the shop was full. My father, pale as whitewash, closed the shop. We children called out: "leave it open, leave it open!" But my father did not have the courage, and he closed the business an hour later. There was such a commotion, and the men outside did not know exactly how to behave. They were afraid of these working men's wives...'(Kliner Fruck 83)
The British Embassy: The Boycott Was Not Popular
Report by the British Embassy, Berlin to the Foreign Office:
Sir H. Rumbold (Berlin) to Sir J. Simon (Received April 21) No. 378 [C 3594/3 19/18]: Berlin, April 13, 1933. 'Sir, With reference to my dispatch no.329 of the 5th April, I have the honour to report that, so far as I am in a position to judge, the Jewish boycott on the 1st April has not been popular throughout the country. On the other hand, there has been no noteworthy revulsion or feeling in favour of the Jews, and the National Socialist party continue to maltreat and persecute individual Jews...'. (Documents of British Foreign Policy 38)
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Economic Exclusion
Although the authorities limited the boycott to one day and never renewed it, the Party organisations continued to encourage the economic exclusion of the Jews. These actions remained localised for the time being in accordance with the will of the central government, which actually prohibited boycotts on many occasions. In the meantime, the economic exclusion of Jews from German economic life was pursued in various other ways; including propaganda by the boycott committees, dismissal of Jewish workers, exclusion of Jews from unions and economic associations, and harassment of individual Jewish businessmen.
Closing the Shop and Selling from Home
From the testimony of Shimon Banai, son of a Jewish family, formerly of Berlin video:
Shimon Banai : [The father had a shop that was closed in 1933 because of boycott and harassment. He continued sales from his home. The Christian clients still wanting to buy from him.] (Yad Vashem VD 1427)
Difficulties with Clients
From the testimony of Benjamin Sommer, son of a Jewish travelling salesman.
Benjamin Sommer : [The father was a travelling salesman. Coming back from his trips he told of how clients made difficulties, refused to pay, threatened him with their dogs.] (Yad Vashem VD 1566)
Button : From Screen to Impassable Rampart
From the memoirs of Eric Lucas, son of a Jewish cattle dealer in the Aachen area:
'Immediately afterwards, all the peasants were forced to sell their livestock to the co-operative and Jews were barred from the market. In this fashion, the Aryan livestock traders took over the entire market. Trade continued to take place, without the co-operative and without the Jews. Old-time friends among the peasants sorrowfully asked the Jews not to come onto their premises again because people in high places could use this against them. Just the same, a few peasants came at night to buy or sell a cow, and the customers here and there organised to continue buying beef at the places where they had been doing so for years. However, the dangerous methods used by the new wielders of power showed that they knew exactly what the goal was and how to attain it. Gradually, the community and the villagers were separated by a descending screen that solidified into an impassable rampart.' (Lucas 53)
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Attacks on Department Stores
The Nazis made department stores one of their prime targets. Department stores had been a post World War I innovation, and were owned and controlled mostly by Jews. Nazi attacks on these stores were strongly supported by retail shopkeepers, who faced fierce competition from the department stores and fought back through party-affiliated merchants' organisations.
For Us There is Only Implementation of the Party Plan.
Declaration by Buerckel, Gauleiter of Pfalz, October 3, 1933:
'I am repeatedly asked about our views on the matter of the department stores and behaviour toward Jewish shops. They quote all kinds of regulations that may lead to misunderstandings. Therefore, I wish to make the following clear: 1.Even before the accession to power, we considered the department store a contemptible establishment that was driving retail shopkeepers out of business. This will remain our view in the future, too. I consider it strange that the matter need be mentioned at all. The same holds for the handling of the Jewish question. We veteran Nazis have no interest in the utterances of this or that high ranking Nazi. For us, there is only implementation of the Party plan, according to the will of the Fuehrer.' (Genschel 82)
II. Legislation Screen
Law for Restoration of the Professional Civil Service
In several German states, Jews were dismissed from their civil service posts. - The civil service, which employed not only bureaucrats but university teachers and judges as well, was consecrated in German tradition. From the first days of the regime the Nazis desired to convert the civil service into a 'national' apparatus and to facilitate the retirement of all persons whom the regime deemed undesirable. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service was passed on April 7, 1933. It permitted the dismissal of all civil servants of non-Aryan origin. A non-Aryan was defined as anyone who had at least one non-Aryan grandparent.
